Supply Chain

What is a Supply Chain?
A supply chain is a network of retailers, distributors, transporters, storage facilities, and suppliers that participate in the production, delivery, and sale of a product to the consumer. The supply chain is typically made up of multiple companies who coordinate activities to set themselves apart from the competition.
A supply chain has three key parts:
1.Supply focuses on the raw materials supplied to manufacturing, including how, when, and from what location.
2.Manufacturing focuses on converting these raw materials into finished products.
3.Distribution focuses on ensuring these products reach the consumers through an organized network of distributors, warehouses, and retailers.
While often applied to manufacturing and consumer products, a supply chain can also be used to show how several processes supply to one another. The supply chain definition in this sense can apply to Internet technology, finance, and many other industries. A supply chain strategy defines how the supply chain should operate in order to compete in the market. The strategy evaluates the benefits and costs relating to the operation. While a business strategy focuses on the overall direction a company wishes to pursue, supply chain strategy focuses on the actual operations of the organization and the supply chain that will be used to meet a specific goal.

Supply Chain Modeling
There are a variety of supply chain models, which address both the upstream and downstream sides.
The SCOR (Supply Chain Operations Reference) model, developed by the Supply Chain Council, measures total supply chain performance. It is a process reference model for supply-chain management, spanning from the supplier's supplier to the customer's customer. It includes delivery and order fulfillment performance, production flexibility, warranty and returns processing costs, inventory and asset turns, and other factors in evaluating the overall effective performance of a supply chain.
The Global Supply Chain Forum (GSCF) introduced another Supply Chain Model. This framework is built on eight key business processes that are both cross-functional and cross-firm in nature. Each process is managed by a cross-functional team, including representatives from logistics, production, purchasing, finance, marketing and research and development. While each process will interface with key customers and suppliers, the customer relationship management and supplier relationship management processes form the critical linkages in the supply chain

Supply Chain Management
Supply Chain Management (SCM) is a process used by companies to ensure that their supply chain is efficient and cost-effective. A supply chain is the collection of steps that a company takes to transform raw components into the final product. Typically, supply chain management is comprised of five stages: plan, develop, make, deliver, return.
Plan: This is the first stage in supply chain management, A plan or strategy must be developed to address how a given good or service will meet the needs of the customers. A significant portion of the strategy should focus on planning a profitable supply chain.
Develop is the next stage in supply chain management. It involves building a strong relationship with suppliers of the raw materials needed in making the product the company delivers. This phase involves not only identifying reliable suppliers but also planning methods for shipping, delivery, and payment.
Make, this is the third stage in supply chain management, the product is manufactured, tested, packaged, and scheduled for delivery. Then, at the logistics phase, customer orders are received and delivery of the goods is planned. This fourth stage of supply chain management stage is aptly named Deliver.
The final stage of supply chain management is called Return. As the name suggests, during this stage, customers may return defective products. The company will also address customer questions in this stage.
Another model for understanding supply chain management is grouping all management activities into three categories: strategic, tactical, and operational. Strategic activities include building relationships with suppliers and customers, and integrating information technology (IT) within the supply chain. Studying competitors and making decisions regarding production and delivery would fall under the tactical category. The operational category includes the daily management of the supply chain, including the making of production schedules.
Companies use forecast-distribution models in order to have the appropriate inventory, or safety stock, necessary to meet fluctuations in customer demand. Forecast-distribution helps companies maintain more efficient, and therefore more effective, supply chain management. Under this model, participants in the lower-end of the supply chain, rather than those near the end-customer, increase their orders frequently when there is a rise in demand. Conversely, when there is a decrease in demand, they decrease or stop their orders to prevent excessive inventory. This greater variation in demand that can be seen in the supply chain as one moves away from the end customer is known as the whiplash or bullwhip effect. A possible solution to this effect is Kanban, a demand-driven supply chain. The participants in the supply chain would react to actual customer orders, not forecasts of them.
Problems associated with supply chain management are handled within supply chain event management (SCEM), which is the process of planning for and preventing factors that might affect the supply chain.

Developments in Supply Chain Management
There are six major movements that can be observed in the evolution of supply chain management studies; they are as follows;
1. Creation Era
The term supply chain management was first coined by an American industry consultant in the early 1980s. However the concept of supply chain in management, was of great importance long before in the early 20th century, especially by the creation of the assembly line. The characteristics of this era of supply chain management include the need for large scale changes, re-engineering, downsizing driven by cost reduction programs, and widespread attention to the Japanese practice of management.
2. Integration Era
This era of supply chain management studies was highlighted with the development of Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) systems in the 1960s and developed through the 1990s by the introduction of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems. This era has continued to develop into the 21st century with the expansion of internet-based collaborative systems. This era of SC evolution is characterized by both increasing value-added and cost reduction through integration.
3. Globalization Era
The third movement of supply chain management development, globalization era, can be characterized by the attention towards global systems of supplier relations and the expansion of supply chain over national boundaries and into other continents. Although the use of global sources in the supply chain of organizations can be traced back to several decades ago (e.g. the oil industry), it was not until the late 1980s that a considerable number of organizations started to integrate global sources into their core business. This era is characterized by the globalization of supply chain management in organizations with the goal of increasing competitive advantage, creating more value-added, and reducing costs through global sourcing.
4. Specialization Era—Phase One—Outsourced Manufacturing and Distribution
In the 1990s industries began to focus on “core competencies” and adopted a specialization model. Companies abandoned vertical integration, sold off non-core operations, and outsourced those functions to other companies. This changed management requirements by extending the supply chain well beyond the four walls and distributing management across specialized supply chain partnerships.
This transition also re-focused the fundamental perspectives of each respective organization. OEMs became brand owners that needed deep visibility into their supply base. They had to control the entire supply chain from above instead of from within. Contract manufacturers had to manage bills of material with different part numbering schemes from multiple OEMs and support customer requests for work -in-process visibility and vendor-managed inventory (VMI).
The specialization model creates manufacturing and distribution networks composed of multiple, individual supply chains specific to products, suppliers, and customers who work together to design, manufacture, distribute, market, sell, and service a product. The set of partners may change according to a given market, region, or channel, resulting in a proliferation of trading partner environments, each with its own unique characteristics and demands.
5. Specialization Era—Phase Two—Supply Chain Management as a Service
Specialization within the supply chain began in the 1980s with the inception of transportation brokerages, warehouse management, and non asset based carriers and has matured beyond transportation and logistics into aspects of supply planning, collaboration, execution and performance management.
At any given moment, market forces could demand changes within suppliers, logistics providers, locations, customers and any number of these specialized participants within supply chain networks. This variability has significant effect on the supply chain infrastructure, from the foundation layers of establishing and managing the electronic communication between the trading partners to the more-complex requirements, including the configuration of the processes and work flows that are essential to the management of the network itself.
Supply chain specialization enables companies to improve their overall competencies in the same way that outsourced manufacturing and distribution has done; it allows them to focus on their core competencies and assemble networks of best in class domain specific partners to contribute to the overall value chain itself – thus increasing overall performance and efficiency. The ability to quickly obtain and deploy this domain specific supply chain expertise without developing and maintaining an entirely unique and complex competency in house is the leading reason why supply chain specialization is gaining popularity.
Outsourced technology hosting for supply chain solutions debuted in the late 1990s and has taken root in transportation and collaboration categories most dominantly. This has progressed from the Application Service Provider (ASP) model from approximately 1998 through 2003 to the On-Demand model from approximately 2003-2006 to the Software as a Service (SaaS) model we are currently focused on today.
6. Supply Chain Management 2.0 (SCM 2.0)
Building off of globalization and specialization, SCM 2.0 has been coined to describe both the changes within the supply chain itself as well as the evolution of the processes, methods and tools that manage it in this new "era".
Web 2.0 is defined as a trend in the use of the World Wide Web that is meant to increase creativity, information sharing, and collaboration among users. At its core, the common attribute that Web 2.0 brings is it helps us navigate the vast amount of information available on the web to find what we are looking for. It is the notion of a usable pathway. SCM 2.0 follows this notion into supply chain operations. It is the pathway to SCM results – the combination of the processes, methodologies, tools and delivery options to guide companies to their results quickly as the complexity and speed of the supply chain increase due to the effects of global competition, rapid price fluctuations, surging oil prices, short product life cycles, expanded specialization, near/far and off shoring, and talent scarcity.
SCM 2.0 leverages proven solutions designed to rapidly deliver results with the ability to quickly manage future change for continuous flexibility, value and success. This is delivered through competency networks composed of best of breed supply chain domain expertise to understand which elements, both operationally and organizationally, are the critical few that deliver the results as well as the intimate understanding of how to manage these elements to achieve desired results, finally the solutions are delivered in a variety of options as no-touch via business process outsourcing, mid-touch via managed services and software as a service (SaaS), or high touch in the traditional software deployment model.

Supply Chain Business Process Integration
Successful SCM requires a change from managing individual functions to integrating activities into key supply chain processes. An example scenario: the purchasing department places orders as requirements become appropriate. Marketing, responding to customer demand, communicates with several distributors and retailers as it attempts to satisfy this demand. Shared information between supply chain partners can only be fully leveraged through process integration.
Supply chain business process integration involves collaborative work between buyers and suppliers, joint product development, common systems and shared information. According to Lambert and Cooper (2000) operating an integrated supply chain requires continuous information flow. However, in many companies, management has reached the conclusion that optimizing the product flows cannot be accomplished without implementing a process approach to the business. The key supply chain processes stated by Lambert (2004) are:
1.Customer relationship management
2.Customer service management
3.Demand management
4.Order fulfillment
5.Manufacturing flow management
6.Supplier relationship management
7.Product development and commercialization
8.Returns management
Much has been written about demand management. Best in Class companies have similar characteristics. They include the following: a) Internal and external collaboration b) Lead time reduction initiatives c) Tighter feedback from customer and market demand d) Customer level forecasting
One could suggest other key critical supply business processes combining these processes stated by Lambert such as:
a.Customer service management
b.Procurement
c.Product development and commercialization
d.Manufacturing flow management/support
e.Physical distribution
f.Outsourcing/partnerships
g.Performance measurement


a) Customer Service Management Process
Customer Relationship Management concerns the relationship between the organization and its customers. Customer service provides the source of customer information. It also provides the customer with real-time information on promising dates and product availability through interfaces with the company's production and distribution operations. Successful organizations use following steps to build customer relationships:
•determine mutually satisfying goals between organization and customers
•establish and maintain customer rapport
•produce positive feelings in the organization and the customers
b) Procurement Process
Strategic plans are developed with suppliers to support the manufacturing flow management process and development of new products. In firms where operations extend globally, sourcing should be managed on a global basis. The desired outcome is a win-win relationship, where both parties benefit, and reduction times in the design cycle and product development are achieved. Also, the purchasing function develops rapid communication systems, such as electronic data interchange (EDI) and Internet linkages to transfer possible requirements more rapidly. Activities related to obtaining products and materials from outside suppliers requires performing resource planning, supply sourcing, negotiation, order placement, inbound transportation, storage, handling and quality assurance, many of which include the responsibility to coordinate with suppliers in scheduling, supply continuity, hedging, and research into new sources or programs.
c) Product Development and Commercialization
Here, customers and suppliers must be united into the product development process, thus to reduce time to market. As product life cycles shorten, the appropriate products must be developed and successfully launched in ever shorter time-schedules to remain competitive. According to Lambert and Cooper (2000), managers of the product development and commercialization process must:
1.coordinate with customer relationship management to identify customer-articulated needs;
2.select materials and suppliers in conjunction with procurement, and
3.develop production technology in manufacturing flow to manufacture and integrate into the best supply chain flow for the product/market combination.
d) Manufacturing Flow Management Process
The manufacturing process is produced and supplies products to the distribution channels based on past forecasts. Manufacturing processes must be flexible to respond to market changes, and must accommodate mass customization. Orders are processes operating on a just-in-time (JIT) basis in minimum lot sizes. Also, changes in the manufacturing flow process lead to shorter cycle times, meaning improved responsiveness and efficiency of demand to customers. Activities related to planning, scheduling and supporting manufacturing operations, such as work-in-process storage, handling, transportation, and time phasing of components, inventory at manufacturing sites and maximum flexibility in the coordination of geographic and final assemblies postponement of physical distribution operations.
e) Physical Distribution
This concerns movement of a finished product/service to customers. In physical distribution, the customer is the final destination of a marketing channel, and the availability of the product/service is a vital part of each channel participant's marketing effort. It is also through the physical distribution process that the time and space of customer service become an integral part of marketing, thus it links a marketing channel with its customers (e.g. links manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers).
f) Outsourcing/Partnerships
This is not just outsourcing the procurement of materials and components, but also outsourcing of services that traditionally have been provided in-house. The logic of this trend is that the company will increasingly focus on those activities in the value chain where it has a distinctive advantage and everything else it will outsource. This movement has been particularly evident in logistics where the provision of transport, warehousing and inventory control is increasingly subcontracted to specialists or logistics partners. Also, to manage and control this network of partners and suppliers requires a blend of both central and local involvement. Hence, strategic decisions need to be taken centrally with the monitoring and control of supplier performance and day-to-day liaison with logistics partners being best managed at a local level.
g) Performance Measurement
Experts found a strong relationship from the largest arcs of supplier and customer integration to market share and profitability. By taking advantage of supplier capabilities and emphasizing a long-term supply chain perspective in customer relationships can be both correlated with firm performance. As logistics competency becomes a more critical factor in creating and maintaining competitive advantage, logistics measurement becomes increasingly important because the difference between profitable and unprofitable operations becomes more narrow. A.T. Kearney Consultants (1985) noted that firms engaging in comprehensive performance measurement realized improvements in overall productivity. According to experts internal measures are generally collected and analyzed by the firm including
1.Cost
2.Customer Service
3.Productivity measures
4.Asset measurement, and
5.Quality.
External performance measurement is examined through customer perception measures and "best practice” benchmarking, and includes 1) customer perception measurement, and 2) best practice benchmarking. Components of Supply Chain Management are 1. Standardization 2. Postponement 3. Customization

Wholesale Price

What is a Wholesale Price?
A wholesale price is the price offered to purchasers of manufactured goods or to commercial sellers in many cases. Sometimes, small warehouse stores like Costco offer wholesale prices to some of their customers who own businesses. These prices are usually about half the price of something that could be purchased at retail value. Sellers or producers of other goods (like restaurants) confer a higher price to the retail customer, often at a 100% or more mark-up.
Goods don’t just have to be manufactured; they can also be grown. A farmer for instance, offers a wholesale price to a grocery store or a produce buying company. The produce buying company may spend money to package or repackage goods for sale, usually in smaller lots. These are then sold at a retail price that is much higher than if you were to purchase the goods from the farmer on your own.
Part of the reason that manufacturers of goods or growers can offer wholesale prices is because they sell their goods in bulk. A grocery store doesn’t buy just one tomato from a farmer; it buys several tons of tomatoes. This way the farmer, though selling the goods at a lower price than what they would cost in a grocery store, is assured a larger sum payment for the goods, and is able to get rid of his produce.
The same applies to any manufactured item. Retailers don’t go looking for one manufactured item, unless it’s exceptionally large or special ordered. Instead they buy thousands of the item and are assured a lower price. Larger retailers, who make very large purchases of the same item and have the ability to offer these items at a high number of stores, may be able to get better wholesale prices that would a small independent store that can only purchase a small number of a single good. Purchasing volume is important when determining wholesale price.
Due to the fact that wholesale price for goods can be so much lower than retail markup, there’s often considerable price flexibility on certain items, particularly clothing and furniture. Generally, even when a company offers sales or clearances they may still make a profit, though not as high a one as they’d get if they sell things at full price. Consumers wise to this price flexibility tend to wait for sales to shop. They know that prices can be flexible when markup is high, and there’s no point purchasing something at full retail price when you can purchase something at a price much closer to wholesale price.

Wholesale

Wholesale is a Sale of goods, generally in large quantity, to a retailer for resale purposes. For instant Wholesalers buys goods in bulk quantities from either manufacturers or importers, and then sells in smaller quantity to retail stores.
In this business you must have good negotiation skills to get the lowest possible products prices from the manufacturers so that you can have decent margin to cover the costs of distribution and leave a profit.
There are some strategies to achieve the best possible prices, ranging from simple haggling, quantity discounts, early payment discounts and even buying whole container loads in partnership with other wholesalers that did not compete in our area.
A wholesaler usually works with the manufacturer to provide quantities of goods to other retail outlets or businesses. Often, they may also be the distributor of the product as well. A wholesaler is usually only interested in volume sales and does not sell single or low-quantity lots of the products. In situations such as this the manufacturer sells only to its wholesalers, who in turn sell to businesses or distributors. The manufacturer may be the wholesaler in some cases they usually handle all logistics involved in getting the merchandise to your location, as well as billing for the products and delivery.

Wholesale Merchants
Wholesale merchants buy and sell merchandise on their own account, that is, they take title to the goods they sell. They generally operate from warehouse or office locations and they may ship from their own inventory or arrange for the shipment of goods directly from the supplier to the client. In addition to the sale of goods, they may provide, or arrange for the provision of, logistics, marketing and support services, such as packaging and labelling, inventory management, shipping, handling of warranty claims, in-store or co-op promotions, and product training. Dealers of machinery and equipment, such as dealers of farm machinery and heavy-duty trucks, also fall within this category.
Wholesale merchants are known by a variety of trade designations depending on their relationship with suppliers or customers, or the distribution method they employ. Examples include wholesale merchants, wholesale distributors, drop shippers, rack-jobbers, import-export merchants, buying groups, dealer-owned cooperatives and banner wholesalers.
The first eight subsectors of wholesale trade comprise wholesale merchants. The grouping of these establishments into industry groups and industries is based on the merchandise line or lines supplied by the wholesaler.

Wholesale Agents and Brokers
Wholesale agents and brokers buy and sell merchandise owned by others on a fee or commission basis. They do not take title to the goods they buy or sell, and they generally operate at or from an office location.
Wholesale agents and brokers are known by a variety of trade designations including import-export agents, wholesale commission agents, wholesale brokers, and manufacturer's representatives and agents.